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1 Corinthians 9:11
"If we sowed spiritual things in you, is it too much if we should reap material things from you?"

Relationship With Jesus
The Key To Effective Ministry

Section 10, Chapter 1

Genesis:
Absolutely Reliable
Scientifically

Chapter Illustration

Chapter 1 Pages 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Gravitational Coupling Constant (the force of gravity) determines what kind of stars we have in the universe. If the gravitational force were slightly stronger, star formation would come about more quickly and the mass of these stars would be 1.4 times greater than they are now. However, if the stars like our sun had 1.4 times its current mass, it would burn too rapidly and too inconstantly to maintain life-supporting conditions to surrounding planets.

If the Gravitational Force were slightly weaker, all stars would be less than 0.8 times the mass of the sun. These suns would burn longer, but they would not be able to produce elements necessary for sustaining life. If this force were slightly stronger, nuclear particles would tend to bond together more frequently and more firmly. This would result in hydrogen, a bachelor nuclear particle, and heavy elements like iron being very rare in the universe which would also make life impossible in the universe.

The Weak Nuclear Force Coupling Constant affects the behavior of leptons. Leptons form a whole class of elementary particles (e.g. neutrinos, electrons, and photons) that do not participate in strong nuclear reactions. The most familiar weak interaction effect is radioactivity, in particular, the beta decay reaction. If the weak nuclear force coupling constant were slightly larger, neutrons would decay more readily, and therefore would be less available. If this were true, little or no helium would be produced. Without the necessary helium, heavy elements sufficient for the construction of life would not exist. However, if this constant were slightly smaller, most or all of the hydrogen would be burned into helium with a subsequent over-abundance of heavy elements.

The Strong Nuclear Force is much more delicately balanced. An increase as small as two percent means that protons would never form from quarks (particles that form the building blocks of baryons and mesons). A similar decrease means that certain heavy elements essential for life would be unstable. Again, life as we know it would not be possible under these conditions. If the weak nuclear force were smaller, neutrinos would quietly escape during a supernova explosion, failing to interact sufficiently with the the outer layers of the star, and thus preventing significant expulsion of heavy elements. If the weak nuclear force were larger, neutrinos would be trapped inside the cores of supernovae and again would be unable to facilitate the expulsion of the heavy elements which are the building blocks for life.

The Electromagnetic Coupling Constant binds electrons to protons in atoms. The characteristics of the orbits of electrons about atomic nuclei determines to what degree atoms will bond together to form molecules. If the electromagnetic coupling constant were slightly smaller, few electrons would be held in orbits about nuclei. If it were slightly larger, an atom could not "share" an electron orbit with other atoms. Either way, the necessary molecules for life would not exist.

The Ratio of Protons to Electrons establishes the function of gravity relative to electromagnetism. The ratio of protons and electrons in the universe are one part in 1,037. Had this balance been slightly different, electromagnetism would so dominate gravity that galaxies, stars and planets as we know them could not exist.

The Ratio of Electron to Proton Mass also determines the characteristics of the orbits of electrons about nuclei. A proton is 1,836 times more massive than an electron. If the electron to proton mass ratio were much larger or smaller, again, the necessary molecules would not form, and life would not be impossible.

The Entropy Level of the Universe affects the degree to which massive systems (e.g. galaxies and stars) condense. The ratio of photons to baryons tells us how entropic our universe is. That ratio is about a billion to one. Thus, we can say that the universe is extremely entropic, i.e. a very efficient radiator and a very poor engine. If the entropy level for the universe were slightly larger, no galactic systems would exist or stars. If the entropy level were slightly smaller, the galactic systems that formed would effectively trap radiation and prevent any fragmentation of the systems into stars. Either way, the universe would be devoid of stars and life as we know it.

The Mass of the Universe, mass + energy since E = mc², determines how much nuclear burning takes place. If the mass were slightly larger, too much deuterium (hydrogen atoms with nuclei containing both a proton and a neutron) would form. Deuterium is a powerful catalyst for subsequent nuclear burning in stars. Extra deuterium would cause stars to burn too rapidly to sustain life on any possible planet. On the other hand, if the mass of the universe were slightly smaller, no helium would be generated. Without helium, stars cannot produce the heavy elements necessary for life. If the universe were any smaller (or larger), not even one planet like the earth would be possible.

The Uniformity of the Universe determines its stellar components. Our universe has a high degree of uniformity. If the inflation (or some other mechanism) had not smoothed the universe to the degree we see, the universe would have developed into a plethora of black holes separated by virtually empty space. On the other hand, if the universe were smoother, the condensations necessary to form stars, star clusters, and galaxies would never have come about. Either way, the resultant universe would be incapable of supporting life.

The Stability of the Proton affects the quantity of matter in the universe and the radiation level in the range that would affect life forms. Each proton contains three quarks. Through the agency of other particles called bosons, quarks decay into antiquarks, pious, and positrons. Currently in our universe this decay process occurs on the average of only once per proton per 1032 years. If that rate were greater, the biological consequences for large animals and man would be catastrophic, for the proton decays would deliver lethal doses of radiation.

The Fine Structure Constants relate to each of the four fundamental forces —gravitational, strong nuclear, weak nuclear, and electromagnetic. Compared to the coupling constants, the fine structure constants yield stricter design constraints for the universe. For example, the electromagnetic fine structure constant affects the opacity of stellar material (Opacity is the degree to which a material permits radiant energy to pass through). In star formation, gravity pulls material together while thermal motions tend to pull it apart. An increase in the opacity will limit the effect of thermal motions. Hence, smaller clumps of material will be able to overcome the resistance of the thermal motions. If the electromagnetic fine structure constant were slightly larger, all the stars would be less than 0.7 times the mass of the sun. If the electromagnetic fine structure constant were slightly smaller, all the stars would be more than 1.8 times the mass of the sun. Life as we know it would not be able to exist under these conditions.

The Velocity of Light can be expressed as a function of any one of the fundamental forces of physics or as a function of one of the fine structure constants. Any real changes in the velocity (now defined to be 299,792,458 meters per second) of light would alter all of these constants. The slightest change in the velocity of light, up or down, would make life as we know it impossible.

The ⁸ Be, ¹²C, and ¹⁶O Nuclear Energy Levels affect the manufacture and abundances of elements essential to life. Atomic nuclei exist in various discrete energy levels. A transition from one level to another occurs through the emission or capture of a photon that possesses precisely the energy difference between the two levels. The first coincidence here is that ⁸Be decays in just 10^-15 seconds. Because ⁸Be is so highly unstable, it slows down the fusion process. If it were more stable, fusion of heavier elements would proceed so readily that catastrophic stellar explosions would result. Such explosions would prevent the formation of many heavy elements essential for life. On the other hand, if ⁸Be were even more unstable, element production beyond ⁸Be would not occur. The second coincidence is that ¹²C happens to have a nuclear energy level very slightly above the sum of the energy levels for ⁸Be and ⁴He. Anything other than this precise nuclear energy level for ¹²C would guarantee insufficient carbon production for life. The third coincidence is that ¹⁶O has the right nuclear energy level both to prevent all the carbon from turning into oxygen and to facilitate sufficient production Of ¹⁶O for life. This means that the ground state energies for ⁴He, ⁸Be, ¹²C, and ¹⁶O could not be higher or lower with respect to each other by more than four percent without yielding a universe with insufficient oxygen or carbon for any kind of life.

Chapter 1 Pages 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Bibliography & Notes
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